Paper IV: Biochemistry (Advanced Paper II)

Chemistry and classification of carbohydrates. Monosaccharides disaccharides and oligosaccharides. Stability and formation of glycosidic bond. Configuration and conformation. Polysaccharides Storage and structural polysaccharides and Glycosominolycans (heparin, hyaluronic acid and others) Structural determination of polysaccharides, glycoproteins and glycolipids. Blood group substances. Acid-mucopolysaccharides and proteoglycans.

Glycolysis and fermentation, different forms of fermentation, Pasteur, Crabtree and Warburg effects. Control of glycolysis in muscle. Metabolism of fructose, galactose and mannose. Reaction of TCA cycle,energy yields and central importance of the cycle. Pyruvate dehydrogenase mutienzyme complex and its regulation. Regulation of TCA cycle and its amphibolic 

The coricycle. Glyoxylate shunt, lactose and sucrose synthesis. Glycoprotein synthesis. HMP shunt, Glucoronic acid cycle, Glycogen metabolism and its regulation,Defects in carbohydrate metabolism and its regulation. Glycogen storage diseases, pentoruria, galactosuria, lactose intolerance. Regulation of blood glucose and diabetes. Mucopolysaccharide disorders.

The molecular structure and behaviour of lipids. Classification of lipids. Chemistry of fatty acids, triacyl glycerols, waxes, glycerol phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycosphingolipids, cerebrosides, cholesterol. Bile acids and bile salts. Biological role of neutral fats, phospholipids, cholesterol. Structure and biological role of lipoproteins. Liposomes. Structure and functions of prostaglandins, prostancilins, leukotrienes.

Lipids as energy reserves. Utilization of triacylglycerols in animals.Fat digestion and absorption. Transport of fat to tissues. Lipoproteins. Mobilization of stored fat. Fatty acid oxidation-α, β and W. Energy yields from fatty acid oxidation. Oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids and fatty acids with odd numbered carbon atoms, Control of fatty acid oxidation, role of cornitine, Ketogenesis.

Fatty acid biosynthesis. Elongation of fatty acid chains. Fatty acid desaturation. Control of fatty acid synthesis. Biosynthesis of triacylglycerols. Metabolism of phospholipids and glycolipids. Cholesterol transport and utilization. Biosynthesis of cholesterol and its regulation. Biosynthesis of bile acids. Metabolism of arachidonate, eiosanoids, prostaglandin's thromboxanes and leukotrienes. Disorders of lipid metabolism (Ketosis, Niemann Pick disease, Gaucher's disease, hyper cholesterolemia, hyper and hypolipoproteinemia, fatty liver, obesity and atherosclerosis).

Introduction to proteins, chemistry and properties of the amino acids,properties of amino acid side chains, modified and unusual amino acids. Peptides and the peptide bond, stability and formation of the peptide bond. Proteins-structure and classification. Introduction to chemical modification of proteins. Isolation, purification and criteria of proteins. Peptide synthesis-solution and solid phase methods.

Amino acid analysis of proteins.Primary structure,determination of the N and C terminal residues of a protein, sequence determination of a protein. Secondary structure-peptide foldings, peptide mapping. Ramachandran plots. Fibrous proteins-keratins, collagen. Globular proteins-Tertiary structure-Functional diversity. Myoglobin,hemoglobin and Rnase-structural features. Quaternary structure of proteins. Determination of molecular weights and number of sub units in a protein.

Nitrogen metabolism.Nitrogen cycle, biological nitrogen fixation. Utilization of ammonia. Biogenesis of organic nitrogen. General reactions in amino acid metabolism. Role of pyridoxal phosphate. Urea cycle and its regulation. Protein turnover. Metabolism of essential and non-essential amino acids. Genetic disorders of amino acid metabolism. Metabolism of heme. Biogenic amines. Metabolism and role of glutathione tetrahydrofolate cofactors and metabolism of C-1 units. Metabolism of purines and pyrimidines and their regulation. Biosynthesis of deoxyribonucleotides and its regulation. Disorders of nucleotide metabolism-Gout, Lesca-Nyhan syndrome and orotic aciduria Biological and medical importance of nucleotide analogs.

Functions of liver, tests based on the secretory, excretory, conjugation carbohydrates, protein and lipid metabolic functions of liver. Formation of urine, physical characteristics, normal and abnormal constituents of urine. Renal function test.